A Different Perspective of Animals

The beginning of the animal ethics problem, which is questioning whether animals have intelligence and feelings, goes back to pre-Christian times. Although, Pythagoras himself wrote nothing; It is possible to say that this topic began with Pythagoras1. Since then, many ethologists, theologists, and philosophers have been discussing this issue. These days, which we have read as dystopian fiction for centuries, we are faced with that ecological destruction, the consumption of not only humans but also nature. The solution is; to get out of our anthropocentric perspective and remember that we live in unity with other living things in this world. The source of vague objectification of animals with doctrines such as the ‘animal machine’ (‘Bête machine’) is undoubtedly Rene Descartes. However, some argue that this doctrine is not clear enough and does not contain any negative evidence2. In reaction to this doctrine of Descartes, many philosophers and writers have put forward ideas about the feelings and consciousness of animals. Examples of these are; Montaigne, Voltaire, Rousseau and Emile Zola3.

 “Answer me, you who believe that animals are only machines. Has nature arranged for this animal to have all the machinery of feelings only in order for it not to have any at all?”

-Voltaire

   Field studies and research by biologists increasing during the late sixties revealed that animal behavior is much more complex than was accepted. In his book, The Emotional Lives of Animals, Biology Professor Marc Bekoff sums it up4:

 “There was increasingly compelling evidence that we are not alone in the universe, not the only creatures with minds capable of solving problems, capable of love and hate, joy and sorrow, fear and despair. Certainly, we are not the only animals who experience pain and suffering. In other words, there is no sharp line between the human-animal and the rest of the animal kingdom. It is a blurred line, and becoming more so all the time”

Image(1): A cartoon about animal experiments.

  From here, let’s move on to Animal Cognition, a field that encompasses the mental capacities of non-human animals. Developing from Comparative Psychology, this field also includes the term ‘animal intelligence’. There has been an acceleration in this field in the last 50 years. Laboratory and field studies are carried out on species ranging from primates and marine mammals, which provide great brain advantages, to birds, insects, and many more. These studies show that animals can use tools, navigate with the stars, and achieve success in tasks that require attention and memory. Moreover, it is known that many animal species play games, engage in cultural transmission, and establish emotional communication.

   Jean Piaget, a pioneer in the field of ‘developmental psychology’, especially working with children; argued that the development of thought and language in children is not ongoing but through phases. Some researchers have effectively used this situation, which is used in human children, on animals through the ‘Piagetian Methodology’. Neo-Piagetian stages are divided into 4 stages in children; applied to the maximum stage reached in animals5. Piaget’s models of cognition have also been used on primates by many primatalogists6.

Image(2): A crow in animal cognition experiments.

   Important scientists that we should not forget while talking about this field; John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, and Burrhus Frederic. We’ve all heard of Pavlov’s dog experiment. What about Thorndike’s experiment with cats? Thorndike suggests that there are 3 laws to learn: the laws of readiness, repetition, and effect. For readiness, the organism must be in an environment and condition suitable for learning. And according to the level of readiness, the reactions of the organism also change. Thorndike put fish outside the cage where he kept the cats, to increase their readiness level of the cats. Thus, hungry cats will be more willing and active to go outside. Thorndike, who had different views before and after the repetition phase; in the end, he argued that simple repetition was not all that effective. Although repetition may affect learning to some extent, it is not indispensable. In the Law of Effect, which distinguishes himself from other theorists; reinforced behaviors become entrenched. However, punishment does not eliminate the behavior. For example, in Thorndike’s experiment; The fish released out of the cage reinforces the cat’s push on the lever to get out of the cage. However, even without the fish, the cat will press the lever because it wants to get out of the boring cage environment. Moreover, Thorndike’s Law of Effect inspired Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory7.

Image(3): Edward Thorndike- Law of Effect.

   While wrapping up the subject, let’s take a look at the state of pain in animals. Considering that mammals, and perhaps all vertebrates, pain, negatively affects the health and well-being of the animal8. While there is more than one definition of pain, there are two essential components for pain to exist. The first one is ‘nociception’, which we can briefly describe as the reflex of avoiding pain. Nociception ability can vary from species to species because it is subject to natural selection. The second one is the experience of pain9. But there is a fine line here: although pain response can be measured, the experience of pain is subjective. In this case, a conclusion is obtained based on analogy. In other words, if the reaction of the animal is similar to the reaction of the human, the animal has probably experienced the same pain as the human. The idea that animals will not in pain because they do not have that consciousness goes back to Rene Descartes again.

“The question is not, Can they reason? nor, can they talk? but, Can they suffer?”

                                                                                                                 -Jeremy Bentham

Image(4): Example of nociception in a dog with a pin in its paw.

   Until the 80s, this subject was still obscure. Moreover, experiments were expected to prove that animals suffered and justifications that were scientifically acceptable10.

   Research to date shows that: not only mammals; Birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even fish probably experience pain. Besides the physical pain, it has been proven that many animals experience emotional pain. There is also legislation that varies from country to country when testing on animals. Some include all vertebrates, including amphibians, while others; cover only cold-blooded animals.

   One way or another, protecting the welfare of animals and their rights must be our priority. It gives us a glimmer of hope to show them and nature all the good we have not shown to our humanity.

REFERENCES

  1. Huffman, C. (2005). Pythagoras
  2. Cottingham, J. (1978). Descartes’ treatment of animals. Philosophy53(I978), 55I.
  3. MARMARA, F. HİS VE DUYGULARI OLAN VARLIK OLARAK HAYVAN VE BU BAKIŞIN FRANSIZ YAZININDAKİ HABERCİLERİ.
  4. Bekoff, M. (2007). The emotional lives of animals: A leading scientist explores animal joy, sorrow, and empathy-and why they matter. New World Library.
  5. Doré, F. Y., & Dumas, C. (1987). Psychology of animal cognition: Piagetian studies. Psychological Bulletin102(2), 219
  6. Parker, S. T., & McKinney, M. L. (2012). Origins of intelligence: The evolution of cognitive development in monkeys, apes, and humans. Johns Hopkins University Press+ ORM
  7. ATA-AÖF, EĞİTİM PSİKOLOJİSİ, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Muhammed ÇİFTÇİ)
  8. National Research Council. (2009). Pain in Research Animals: General Principles and In Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals. National Academies Press (US)
  9. Sneddon, L. U. (2004). Evolution of nociception in vertebrates: comparative analysis of lower vertebrates. Brain Research Reviews46(2), 123-130
  10. Rollin, B. (1989). The Unheeded Cry: Animal Consciousness, Animal Pain, and Science. Oxford University Press, pp. xii, 117-118, cited in Carbone 2004, p. 150

IMAGE REFERENCES

  1. https://l24.im/dRn
  2. https://l24.im/ui5Zh
  3. https://l24.im/eYBp
  4. https://l24.im/VLN

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